Class: UC Berkeley Extension - Mainstreaming Students with Special Needs in Regular Classes - X370.4

Group: ATTITUDE!!!

Members: Jimi, Bryan, Carmen, Sid, Dayna, Jennifer, Stacey, Erica, Chris

PowerPoint: http://www.dolezalek.com/chris/ca/clatt_files/frame.htm

Attitude:

1. A learned predisposition to react to a given situation, person, or set of cues in a consistent way. Attitudes are generally said to have three components: cognitive, emotive, and behavioral, which combine to convey a positive, negative or neutral response.

2. A relatively stable predisposition to react in a specific way to something. Attitudes are complex products of learning, experience and emotional processes and include enduring preferences, aversions, prejudices, superstitions, scientific or religious views, and political predilections.

Attitude Therapy: A form of re-educative treatment that emphasizes how current attitudes of people originated, and the purpose these attitudes serve, with the intention of attempting to change them.

Ray Corsini: The Dictionary of Psychology Ó2002

Three Components of Attitude

Cognitive - involves beliefs about what is and is not true with respect to
some class of things

Emotive - involves feelings or emotions about some class of things

Behavioral - involves tendencies to do certain things with respect to
some class of things

Some interesting and relevant quotes:

Show me a good loser, and I'll show you a loser.
Winning isn't everything, it's the only thing.
If winning weren't important, they wouldn't keep score.
- Vince Lombardi

Ability is what you're capable of doing.

Motivation determines what you do.

Attitude determines how well you do it.
- Lou Holtz

Show me someone who has done something worthwhile, and I'll show you someone who has overcome adversity
- Lou Holtz

Smooth seas do not make skillful sailors.- African Proverb

If you’re interested, see also my paper “Every Culture’s Subculture: The Underachievers“ at http://www.dolezalek.com/chris/silenced.htm

Drafters of the ADA certainly recognized that some of the most serious impediments to access for people with disabilities are not problems which can be solved solely by architects. There also are problems of attitude. An attitudinal barrier is defined as a way of thinking or feeling that results in behavior which limits the potential of people with disabilities to function independently.

What if there is something 'wrong' with the baby? Cornelia Wilson finds that attitudes within society are far more limiting to disabled children (and their parents) than the medical conditions themselves.

Can we not apply some of the things learned/observed in terms of students with language and prejudice (race, religion, culture, gender, body style, …) issues?

Some terms relevant to this discussion:

Cooperative Learning, Collaboration, Community Building, Character Education, Perspectives, Perceptions, 5 R’s, Service Learning, Affective Filter, …

Steven Krashen’s fifth hypothesis in terms of second language acquisition: the Affective Filter hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

http://wwwed.sturt.flinders.edu.au/edweb/programs/eddprops/larkey.htm:

The research into the question whether inclusion improves social skills has created further debate. It has been found that simply including children with disabilities in the general classroom does not automatically lead to better socialization outcomes for children with disabilities (Cooper et al., 1999, Wagner, 1999). When examining the attitudes of other students towards students with disabilities Kyle and Davies (1991) found a concern expressed by many students without disabilities was “knowing one should be sociable but not knowing quite how to react” (Kyle et al p.106). Similarly, Whitaker et al. (1994) found most students commented on their lack of knowledge of learning disability and two thirds of the students expressed uncertainty as to how to respond to students with disabilities. Cooper et al.(1999) found that a special social skills program for both the disabled and mainstream students was required to foster socialisation.

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY STUDENT ATTITUDES
TOWARD PEERS WITH DISABILITIES

A recent study indicates considerable differences in attitudes of students in special education model and inclusive model elementary and secondary schools toward peers with disabilities. Most marked were differences at the secondary level. Findings were based on one on one interviews with students in grades 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and secondary graduating year in Canadian schools.

· Friendships:
In Special Education model schools students were aware of peers with disabilities but social and academic separation was apparent. Secondary students knew few peers with disabilities by name and friendships were rare. Elementary students did know the names of some peers with disabilities when integration programs were in place. Friendships were uncommon.

Students in inclusively structured schools knew the names of peers with disabilities. Academic and social relationships were the order of the day. Many elementary and secondary students indicated that they were friends of peers with disabilities. Some students were known to pretend friendship in order to gain some type of advantage.

· Teasing and Insulting Behaviour:
Teasing and insulting of peers with disabilities was a dynamic in Special Education model schools, particularly at the secondary level. Name calling, planned public embarrassment, and negative physical reactions to the presence of peers with disabilities were reported. Teasing and insulting behaviour was attributed to a focus on differences, opportunities to set up situations humourous to non-disabled peers, and active desire to avoid association with peers with disabilities.

Teasing and insulting behaviour occurred in Inclusive model schools, but was described as rare. Those who tormented peers with disabilities were considered to lack maturity.

· Advocacy for Peers with Disabilities:
Many students in Special Education model secondary schools reported that they actively intervened when peers with disabilities were tormented, though some chose not to be involved. Elementary students reported few instances where advocacy was required.

As few instances of tormenting behaviour were reported in Inclusive model schools, responses tended to be hypothetical, "if I were to see something", scenarios. Within that context secondary students indicated that they would intervene personally or report an incident to authorities. A number of interviewees suggested that peers acting inappropriately might be helped by an educational program which discussed disability and its effects. A subset volunteered the view that some teachers might benefit from such a program as well.

· Support for Exclusion or Inclusion:
Students in Special Education model schools supported full time or part time segregation for peers with disabilities. Students with disabilities were believed to need help which could be provided only in segregated environments. Few questioned the Special Education model. None suggested an Inclusive model.

Inclusive model students rarely mentioned placement other than in the regular classroom for peers with disabilities. It was accepted that peers with disabilities could succeed at their own level and that it was a peer responsibility to support them in their work. The few mentions of Special Education placement indicated that such placement was inappropriate and not needed.

It is hoped that this study soon will be reported in the literature in fuller form. The recentness of completion has not permitted the time needed to draft a full report. Findings presented above are prelimary in nature.

Gary Bunch, York University, Toronto

Children with Special Health Care Needs

From: Janell and Conni Wells, (cjwell@sprynet.com)

Date: 9/23/96

My name is Janell. I am 15 and this is about having an aid in school. I have had medical problems since I was born. It is important that I stay well and don't get real sick. I have oxygen, special equipment, and doctors to help keep me well. I think it is my responsibility to do what I can to stay healthy.

Most of all, aids shouldn't follow us around and make us look more different. They should keep busy nearby. Some schools say they can't do this, but my aid, Ms Carper was real good at acting like she was there for all of us.

I don't like it when other people keep starring at me and asking if I feel OK. I will tell them when I am not feeling well. Teachers and aids should try to not worry too much about kids with special needs. If they are worried about something bad happening at school, they need to remember to stay calm and learn to trust the student and their own observations. After a while, they will know if we are having trouble just by looking at us.

Also, they should be careful about telling other students about our problems. Just because they are our aid, they should not be in charge of everything we do and say. We are still kids like everyone else in school. I would like the aid to let me explain it myself when someone asks. I should be asked first before anyone tells anyone else anything. I would rather tell other students what is wrong with me in private and only when they ask. Even when I was little and didn't know much, I wanted to be the one who decided what we told others. You might think some kids do not understand, but they do. They know what looks from other kids mean.

Parents have to be real careful about sending their kids to school with special health care problems. They should talk to the teachers first and find ones that are understanding and can handle emergencies without getting all upset. It is OK if everyone cannot do that, as long as there is someone around who can.

Parents and the teachers should make sure there is a safe and private place for kids to go when they need help. They need to listen to us and make sure that they are doing what is best for everyone, not just what they think will be best.

NEVER, EVER PUT A KID IN A ROOM WHERE THE TEACHER ISN'T COMFORTABLE WITH THEM. That is bad for everyone.

Aids can help kids see what they can do with a little help. They should not be there to do everything for them. We are the ones in school, not the aid!

I really like my school. Sometimes I miss a lot of days from getting sick or for appointments, but I still get treated just like everyone else. I play basketball and the teachers and coaches are great. My friends make sure I keep up on what is happening by copying homework for me, lending me their notes, staying in to help me get caught up, and making sure I know the important stuff like who broke up with their boyfriend and who s fighting with each other. I am happy and have a good life and no one feels sorry for me, especially me.

Janell Wells

APA Style Guide

Removing Bias in Language

Guidelines for Non-Handicapping Language in APA Journals

---

Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology

The use of certain words or phrases can express gender, ethnic, or racial bias, either intentionally or unintentionally. The same is true of language referring to persons with disabilities, which in many instances can express negative and disparaging attitudes.

It is recommended that the word disability be used to refer to an attribute of a person, and handicap to the source of limitations. Sometimes a disability itself may handicap a person, as when a person with one arm is handicapped in playing the violin. However, when the limitation is environmental, as in the case of attitudinal, legal, and architectural barriers, the disability is not handicapping—the environmental factor is. This distinction is important because the environment is frequently overlooked as a major source of limitation, even when it is far more limiting than the disability. Thus, prejudice handicaps people by denying access to opportunities; inaccessible buildings surrounded by steps and curbs handicap people who require the use of a ramp.

Use of the terms non-disabled or persons without disabilities is preferable to the term normal when comparing persons with disabilities to others. Usage of normal makes the unconscious comparison of abnormal, thus stigmatizing those individuals with differences. For example, state "a non-disabled control group," not "a normal control group."

The guiding principle for non handicapping language is to maintain the integrity of individuals as whole human beings by avoiding language that (a) implies that a person as a whole is disabled (e.g., disabled person), (b) equates persons with their condition (e.g., epileptics), (c) has superfluous, negative overtones (e.g., stroke victim), or (d) is regarded as a slur (e.g., cripple).

For decades, persons with disabilities have been identified by their disability first, and as persons, second. Often, persons with disabilities are viewed as being afflicted with, or being victims of, a disability. In focusing on the disability, an individual's strengths, abilities, skills, and resources are often ignored. In many instances, persons with disabilities are viewed neither as having the capacity or right to express their goals and preferences nor as being resourceful and contributing members of society. Many words and phrases commonly used when discussing persons with disabilities reflect these biases.

Listed below are examples of negative, stereotypical, and sometimes offensive words and expressions. Also listed are examples of preferred language, which describes without implying a negative judgement. Even though their connotations may change with time, the rationale behind use of these expressions provides a basis for language reevaluation. The specific recommendations are not intended to be all-inclusive. The basic principles, however, apply in the formulation of all nonhandicapping language.

1. Put people first, not their disability Comment: Preferred expressions avoid the implication that the person as a whole is disabled or defective.
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
disabled person defective child mentally ill person		person with (who has) a disability child with a congenital disability child with a birth impairment person with mental illness or psychiatric disability
2. Do not label people by their disability Comment: Because the person is not the disability, the two concepts should be separate.
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
schizophrenics epileptics amputee paraplegics the disabled the retarded the mentally ill the CMI or SPMI		people who have schizophrenia individuals with epilepsy person with an amputation individuals with paraplegia people with disabilities children with mental retardation people with a mental illness or psychiatric disability people with long term or serious and persistent mental illness or psychiatric disabilities
3. Do not label persons with disabilities as patients or invalids Comment: These names imply that a person is sick or under a doctor's care. People with disabilities should not be referred to as patients or invalids unless the illness status (if any) is under discussion or unless they are currently residing in a hospital.
4. Do not overextend the severity of a disability Comment: Preferred expressions limit the scope of the disability. Even if a person has a particular physical disability, this does not mean that the person is unable to do all physical activities. Similarly, a child with a learning disability does not have difficulty in all areas of learning nor does mental retardation imply retardation in all aspects of development. Chronicity in physical illness often implies a permanent situation, but persons with psychiatric disabilities are able to recover.
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
the physically disabled the learning disabled retarded adult chronic mental illness		individuals with a physical disability children with specific learning disabilities adult with mental retardation long-term or persistent mental illness or psychiatric disability
5. Use emotionally neutral expressions Comment: Objectionable expressions have excessive, negative overtones and suggest continued helplessness.
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
stroke victim afflicted with cerebral palsy suffering from multiple sclerosis		individual who had a stroke person with cerebral palsy people who have multiple sclerosis
6. Emphasize abilities, not limitations Comment: The person is not confined to a wheelchair but uses it for mobility, nor is a person homebound who is taught or who works at home.
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
confined to a wheelchair homebound		uses a wheelchair child who is taught at home
7. Avoid offensive expression
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
cripple deformed mongoloid crazy, paranoid		person who has a limp person with a shortened arm child with Down Syndrome person with symptoms of mental illness
8. Focus on the right and capacity of people with disabilities to express their own goals and preferences and to exercise control over their own services and supports Comment: In many instances, persons with disabilities are not given opportunities to participate in decisions regarding the services or supports they will receive as part of a treatment or rehabilitation program. Instead, they are viewed as requiring "management" as patients or cases, rather than as individuals with goals and preferences that should be taken into account.
PROBLEMATIC		PREFERRED
placement professional judgment patient management, case management		discussion of suitable and preferred living arrangements include a consideration of a person's goals and preferences care coordination, supportive services, resource coordination, assistance
9. Seeing people with disabilities as a resource and as contributing community members, not as a burden or problem. Comment: Discussions regarding the service needs of persons with disabilities and their families often use terms that define the individual as a burden or a problem. Instead, terms which reflect the special needs of these persons are preferable, with a clear recognition of the responsibility of communities for inclusion and support of persons with disabilities.
PROBLEMATIC	PREFERRED
family burden problem of mental illness or of the mentally ill community support needs of individuals	family supports needs challenges which people with psychiatric disabilities face responsibilities of communities for inclusion and support
[April 1992]

PEER INTERACTIONS

Acceptance,

Belonging,

Community

Adapted from “Creating Continuity for Children”, pg. 109, Bridging Services for Children with Special Needs and Their Families, Rosenkoetter, Hains and Fowler, Authors/Ed., Paul H. Brooks Publishing, Baltimore.

PEER INTERACTIONS CHECKLIST

1. Discuss the need all people have for relationships and the pros and cons of talking with peers about the disability.
2. Get permission from the student and parents.
3. Provide information about student to peers (see #2).
4. Consider doing an ability awareness workshop for peers and/or school staff.
5. Determine how to in-service staff and provide follow-up technical assistance on how to facilitate peer interactions, peer tutoring, cooperative learning, peer buddies, and peer support groups.
6. Determine which of the strategies in #5 will be utilized and develop an action plan.

PEER INTERACTIONS

CHECKLIST EXPLANATION

Ask yourself the following question: If you had one minute left to live and you knew it, what would you be thinking about? Would you be thinking about your dirty house, your unpaid bills, your lawn in need of mowing, or family members or other significant persons in your life. The majority of people would be thinking of family members or other significant persons in their lives.

Ask yourself another question: For those of you who are high school graduates, think back on your most memorable high school experience. Did it involve an assignment, a test, a lecture, a textbook, a classroom experience, an experience outside of the classroom and/or an experience with another person probably another student? The majority of people would say an experience with another person although the other choices may come into play.

Based upon you answers to the above two questions, would you agree or disagree with the statement that the most important thing in our lives are our relationships with other people? Most people would agree. However, schools have a history of not addressing the area of interpersonal relationships in their curriculums. The following explanations may help you in changing this as learning how to interact with others is a lifelong skill.

1) Discuss the need for all people have for relationships and the pros and cons of talking with peers about the disability. It is imperative to discuss with the student team the pros and cons of talking to peers about the disability as there are different philosophies concerning this. One point of view is that this discussion about the disability will only serve to make the student more “different”.

The other point of view is that this discussion about the disability will help the peers to understand and lessen their fears as we are afraid of what we do not understand. Therefore the student team needs to decide which philosophy they will adhere to.

2) Get permission from the student and parents. Due to the laws that protect the confidentiality of the students and parents, you must obtain written permission from the parents in order to talk with peers (and staff that are not directly involved with the student) about the student’s disability. It is also recommended that you receive verbal permission from the students (written if they are 18 or older) as it is their life you are talking about. Another decision that needs to be made is whether or not the student will be present when his/her disability is discussed. In most cases they should be as again it is their life you are talking about.

3) Provide information about the student to his/her peers (see #2). It is a good idea to ask the parents of the identified student if they would like to talk to the class. See included example of a letter from parents. The information given to peers needs to be presented on people first language and needs to stress how the identified student is similar to his peers. The information needs to include the student’s dreams, gifts, interests, fears, and needs. In order to alleviate the fear of the unknown, it is important to talk about the student’s disability and to show how any adaptations are done and why they are done. The issue of “fairness” may also need to be addressed. The team should decide whether the information shared with peers should also be shared with school staff and parents of the peers.

4) Consider doing an ability awareness workshop for peers and/or school staff. An ability awareness workshop for peers and/or staff will be beneficial in helping people to realize and accept differences in all people. The Kansas State Board of Education has a program that is available that you may use tailored to your own needs. There are also many exceptional published programs for all age levels available which are included in the reference list.

5) Determine how to in-service staff and provide follow-up technical assistance on strategies that promote peer interactions. There are several strategies that can facilitate the building of relationships at school. These strategies include: facilitating peer interactions, peer tutoring, cooperative learning, peer buddies, peer support groups (circle of friends) etc. These strategies will be explained below:

Facilitating peer interactions: Facilitating peer interactions is defined as providing the opportunities for relationships to develop. The key word in the previous sentence is opportunities as no one person can force relationships without having negative effects. For a few people facilitating relationships will come naturally however, the majority of the adults will need to have the philosophy and the process explained to them as this is often not consider to be a part of schools as it is not “academic”. See the included “Guidelines for Facilitating Peer Interactions”. In addition, Beth Schaffner and Barbara Buswell have written an excellent brief manual that would be an excellent resource entitled Connecting Students: A Guide to Thoughtful Friendship Facilitation for Educators & Families.

Peer Support Groups: Peer support groups are sometimes referred to as “circle of friends”. The editor prefers the term “peer support groups” as this term does not imply that we are trying to create friendships. It is recommended that the peer support group be volunteers who meet on a regular basis with an adult facilitator. These meetings may take place before school, after school, over lunch, during a flex time, etc. It is imperative that no one person be put in a situation that they are extremely uncomfortable with. The peer support group needs to set their own goals but, usually are along the lines of peer suggestions on how the student with disabilities be more a part of the class and school. The student with the disability should attend all meetings and be comfortable with the situation. The adult facilitator will need to make sure the group stays on the right track with their goals. Some possible topics for discussion are included. The group should also set rules.

Peer Tutoring: Peer tutoring is defined as having peers assist each other with the learning process. Peer tutoring involves students of similar age or the same grade level assisting each other. Peer tutoring benefits both the tutor as well as the tutee as research has proven that children learn best by teaching each other (citation). For some children the process of peer tutoring will come naturally however, the majority of peers will need training in how to be effective tutors and tutees and what the guidelines are. Peer tutoring allows students to establish lifelong skills in working with others.

Cross-age tutoring: Cross-age tutoring is defined as students of different ages or grade levels assisting each other in the learning process. An example of this is a 5th grade class helping a 2^nd grade class with making a book with one 5th grader working with one 2^nd grader. As with peer tutoring, the guidelines will need to be set and training will need to occur. The biggest obstacle is usually the tutor giving the tutee too much help Included is an example of cross-age tutoring called the “Student Aid Program” developed for Holcomb Middle School several years ago which included the student aids receiving grades for their tutoring services.

Peer Buddies: Peer buddies is defined as students who assist their fellow students in nonacademic areas. An example would be a student assisting a peer with a physical disability through the lunch line. As with peer tutoring, guidelines need to be established and training needs to occur. As with peer tutoring, this strategy assists both parties in learning lifelong skills.

Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning is defined as using the collaborative teaming process (see the section on Collaborative Teams ) with students in an academic setting. There are many versions of cooperative learning that have been published. HPEC and the school districts they work with mainly use “Kagan’s Cooperative Learning” model. An advantage of the Kagan model is that it does not support the concept of “group grades” which is one of the big controversies surrounding cooperative learning.

6. Determine which of the strategies in #5 will be utilized and develop an action plan. In order to insure that the peer interaction strategies explained above become reality, the student team or school staff need to make a decision as to which ones they will utilize. After this decision is made, an action plan needs to be developed so that the strategy will happen. Action plans are explained in the section on Collaborative Teams.

Conclusion: life long skills; No. 1 reason people lose their job is interpersonal skills.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Descriptions of Some Commonly Used Techniques

SIMPLE STRUCTURES

THINK-PAIR-SHARE is a “multi-mode” discussion strategy that incorporates wait time and aspects of cooperative learning. Students and teachers) learn to LISTEN while a question is being posed, THINK (without raising hands) of a response, PAIR with a neighbor, discuss their responses, and SHARE their responses with the whole class. Time limits and transition cues help discussions move smoothly. Students are able to rehearse responses mentally and verbally, and all students have an opportunity to talk. Both students and teachers have opportunity to think. (Lyman)

T.A.P.P.S.(Talking Aloud Paired Problem-Solving) requires a pair. One student responds to the problem by continually talking and verbalizing each step. The other student (listener) does not offer help and speaks only to remind the problem-solver to continue verbalizing or to ask a question if a step is not fully explained. The listener does not offer help in solving nor does he/she indicate agreement or disagreement with an answer. The listener reports what the problem-solver stated. (Ventures in Education)

STUDY BUDDIES work in groups of two, having each member question the other about material being studied. Tell them they will receive bonus points if they score above a certain percentage. (Lundgren)

PARTNER READING has students reading a story or passage silently, then reading it orally with their partner. During oral reading, students take turns reading the story aloud, alternating readers after each paragraph. While their partner is reading, the listener follows along, correcting any errors the reader may make.

(Stevens, et al)

CHECKMATES has teams compare homework answers or class worksheet answers. They should discuss answers, which differ and come to agreement on the best answers and change them. Each pair submits one paper with both names. (Lundgren)

THREE STEP INTERVIEW is similar to Think-Pair-Share-Square, but more structured. Students form pairs. Using interview/listening techniques that have been modeled, one student interviews another about an announced topic. When time is up, students switch roles as interviewer and interviewee. Pairs then join to form groups of four. Students take turns introducing their pair partners and sharing what the pair partner had to say. The three step interview is used as a team builder, and also for opinion questions, predicting, evaluation, sharing book reports, etc. (Kagan)

ROUNDTABLE is used for brainstorming, reviewing or practicing while also serving as a team-builder. Roundtable consists of two forms, sequential and simultaneous. Sequential form: Students sit in teams of three or more, with one piece of paper and a pencil. The teacher asks a question which has multiple answers. Students take turns writing one answer on the paper, then passing the paper and pencil clockwise to the next person. When time is called, teams with the most correct answers are recognized. Teams reflect on strategies and consider ways they could improve. Simultaneous form: Each students starts a piece of paper, writes one answer and passes it, so several

papers are moving at once. (Kagan)

CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE is like roundtable. This technique is useful for brainstorming, reviewing or practicing while also serving as a team-builder. Students sit in teams with one recorder. The teachers ask a single question with multiple answers. Students take turns giving answers, which the recorder writes down. When time is called, teams take turns reporting answers, which the teacher records. Teams may challenge other teams. The team that does not run out of answers wins. (Dunn and Dunn)

NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER is useful for quickly reviewing objective material in a fun way. Students in each team are numbered (each team might have 4 students, numbered 1-4). Students coach each other on the material to be mastered. Teachers pose a question and call a number. Only students with that number are allowed to answer and earn points for their team. This builds both individual accountability and positive interdependence. The activity may be done with only one student in the class responding (sequential form) or with all the number 3’s for instance, responding by hand signals (simultaneous form). (Kagan)

PAIRS CHECK is a way to structure pair work on mastery-oriented worksheets. Students work in teams of four with two sets of partners. The worksheet is set up with problems presented in pairs. The first person in each partnership does the first problem with the pair partner serving as coach, and offering exaggerated praise. After the first problem is done, partners change roles. After each pair of problems, teams of four check each work and, if they agree, give a team cheer or handshake. In this way students stay on task, working together towards mastery. (Kagan)

SEND A PROBLEM permits each student on a team to write a review problem on a flash card (index card). Teams reach consensus on answers and write them on the backs of the card. Each group’s stack of questions is passed to another group, which attempts to answer them and see if they agree with the sending group. If not, they write their own answer as an alternative. Stacks of cards can be sent to a third and fourth group. Stacks of cards are finally returned to senders, who may discuss the alternative answers. (Kagan)

STUDENT TEAM LEARNING TECHNIQUES

The Student Team Learning Models have been developed to make use of carefully structured heterogeneous teams. Reward systems allow students to earn points for their teams based on how well they do compared to past performance.

STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Divisions) lets teachers present material in the same way they always have, and quizzes are used to assess individual performance. STAD is used to replace drill and practice on objective material with team tutoring and encouragement. During team practice time, students work on exercises and worksheets that help them to prepare for the quiz. Students earn team points based on how well they scored on the quiz compared to past performance. (Slavin)

TGT (Teams-Games-Tournaments) has team practice like STAD. Unlike STAD, in TGT quizzes are replaced by tournaments. Students compete at tournament tables against students from other teams who are equal to them in terms of past performance. Students earn team points based on how well they do at their tournament tables. The competition is kept fair by a bumping system.

JIGSAW II, unlike STAD and TGT, has students responsible for teaching each other the material. A unit of work, often a reading, is divided into 4 expert areas, and each student is assigned one area. Experts from different teams meet together at tables and discuss their expert areas. Students then return to their teams and take turns teaching. A quiz is given. Jigsawing materials refers to any strategy in which each student on a team receives only a piece of the material that is to be learned, so that students must rely on other members of their team to learn all of the material. (Slavin)

BRIDGING TECHNIQUES

When building teams with some classes, it is best to start in pairs and then make a transition to larger teams. Some ideas are given below.

SNOWBALLING: A pair of students answer worksheet questions, a lab report conclusion or other written work. Two pairs come together and compare. An option is to have two groups of four come together and compare. One person from a group of eight writes answers or conclusions on the board. (Slavin)

BRAINSTORM BUILDING: Use this strategy to generate a large number of alternative ideas for discussion. Each pair makes a list of ideas on the topic. They are instructed not to evaluate any ideas. Encourage them to build on each other’s ideas, go on sidetracks and into “weird and silly places.” All ideas are acceptable for inclusion. Each pair joins another pair to build an even larger list. The same rules apply. Evaluation begins when no one has further ideas or the time is up. (Lundgren)

MODIFIED WHAT I KNOW: Pairs are given a page divided in half with “What I know about…” on one side and “Questions I have about …” on the other side. The teams are given a certain amount of time to write ideas and questions. Two pairs form a team. They eliminate duplicate questions or knowledge and try to add additional ideas to each side. If one pair knows the answer to a question written by the other pair, they teach the other pair the material. One person from each team places the material on the board.

PAIRS-CONSULTING-PAIRS: Everyone has a worksheet or question sheet. The team members read and discuss a question. When they reach agreement, they join another pair to discuss their answer. When the team reaches an agreement, they write it on the group answer sheet. You collect only one answer sheet per group.

CONSULTING BETWEEN GROUPS: Builds on the previous exercise. Ask groups to trade papers with another group. The group then analyzes and comments, using cooperative skills, on answers with which they disagree.

The NYS Biology-Chemistry Mentor Network, DDE Title II, FLCC, 2001 B. Bookman, J. Valenti, S. Latourelle, L. Maitland

The “Jigsaw Classroom”

( http://www.jigsaw.org )

The jigsaw classroom, a cooperative learning technique that reduces racial conflict among school children, promotes better learning, improves student motivation, and increases enjoyment of the learning experience. The jigsaw technique was first developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students at the University of Texas and the University of California. Since then, hundreds of schools have used the jigsaw classroom with great success. The jigsaw approach is considered to be a particularly valuable tool in averting tragic events such as the Columbine massacre.

Jigsaw in 10 Easy Steps

The jigsaw classroom is very simple to use. If you are a teacher, just follow these steps:

1. Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups. The groups should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability.
2. Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most mature student in the group.
3. Divide the day's lesson into 5-6 segments. For example, if you want history students to learn about Eleanor Roosevelt, you might divide a short biography of her into stand-alone segments on: (1) Her childhood, (2) Her family life with Franklin and their children, (3) Her life after Franklin contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady, and (5) Her life and work after Franklin's death.
4. Assign each student to learn one segment, making sure students have direct access only to their own segment.
5. Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and become familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it.
6. Form temporary "expert groups" by having one student from each jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give students in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group.
7. Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.
8. Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.
9. Float from group to group, observing the process. If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.
10. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.

The three relevant types of attitude we identified:

         I.      Attitude Towards Learning

      II.      Attitude Towards The Special Needs Student

III.      Attitudes Towards IEP, RSP, Special Treatment, Etc

Relevant roles we identified:

1. Mainstreamed Student
2. Non-Mainstreamed Student
3. Parent
4. Regular Teacher
5. RSP And/Or Special Needs Teacher
6. Administrators
7. Society?

The Matrix:

	I. Attitude Towards Learning	II. Attitude Towards Special Needs Student	III. Attitudes Towards IEP, RSP, Special Treatment, Etc.
Mainstreamed Student	Crutch/excuse versus challenge Anxiety as a barrier to learning May depend on type of learning (visual, auditory, kinetic, conceptual, creative, …) Cycle of failure versus obstacles & challenges overcome	Belief in self versus hopelessness Optimism and determination versus resignation Acceptance of real image of self and ready to take on associated challenges (where we’d like to help them get)	Feeling ostracized/singled out Anxiety Erfolg’s erlebnes
Non-Mainstreamed Student	May share some of the same attitudes May loose enthusiasm if too much attention given to mainstreamed student(s) Differences in attitude towards students with physical, learning and behavioral issues
Parent	Working with or against teacher/school? Objective: learning content, learning to function, getting by, or being challenged?	Desire for child to be like others/accepted. Who is it really about; the parent or the child? Empathy versus Tough Love
Regular Teacher	Belief in being able to find ways to help all students learn. Raised but achievable bar	Empathy versus Tough Love Student in box versus individual
RSP &/Or Special Needs Teacher	Working in parallel (same content) with regular teacher or with material focused on learning issue (both or at odds?)	Empathy versus Tough Love
Administrators	Supportive (or not) of extra effort, time, needs, aids, costs, …	Resentment? Challenge to teachers and budget. Issues with “demanding” parents?
Society	Good grades lead to good college/university leads to good job, leads to happiness… Winning is everything	Looking down, either in pity, with empathy or distain? Burden to society versus enrichment	Morally and politically correct Standing behind principles, but sometimes not backing up funding measures

Tools (no easy answers here):

1)       On an test/assignment with ten questions,

i.      One could allow the special needs student to leave the classroom, take more time, use resources the other student may not use, …
This calls attention to the special handling both to the special needs student and the other students.
It could send a message of not believing in them.
It could create anxiety and/or apathy towards the test/assignment.

ii.      One could treat the special needs student the same as others.
This might be asking too much.
It could create anxiety and/or apathy towards the test/assignment.
It could depreciate sense of self worth and abilities

iii.      One could (discretely) allow the special needs student to select a subset of questions (increasing with time as deemed appropriate)
This wouldn’t single the special needs student out as visibly.
This could reduce the anxiety (a known barrier to knowledge acquisition) towards the test/assignment.
This could allow the student some sense of influencing the outcome themselves by picking the questions they can handle.
The expectations could (in certain cases) be raised with time to help re-establish a sense of accomplishment/self-worth.

2)       Other Messages:

i.      Praise can be a double-edged sword: it can give a sense of accomplishment or praising a special needs student for something you would/don’t praise another student for can give a negative message...

   ii.      Critique of the special needs student can disheartening or it may viewed/received as believing in their ability to do better

   iii.      Singling out the special marks them as different

   iv.      Building a classroom community that works together to overcome diversity is a valuable life skill.