Class: UC
Berkeley Extension - Mainstreaming Students with Special Needs in Regular
Classes - X370.4
Group: ATTITUDE!!!
Members: Jimi, Bryan, Carmen, Sid, Dayna, Jennifer,
Stacey, Erica, Chris
PowerPoint: http://www.dolezalek.com/chris/ca/clatt_files/frame.htm
Attitude:
1. A learned
predisposition to react to a given situation, person, or set of cues in a
consistent way. Attitudes are generally
said to have three components: cognitive, emotive, and behavioral, which
combine to convey a positive, negative or neutral response.
2. A relatively stable predisposition
to react in a specific way to something.
Attitudes are complex products of learning, experience and emotional
processes and include enduring preferences, aversions, prejudices,
superstitions, scientific or religious views, and political predilections.
Attitude
Therapy: A form of re-educative treatment that
emphasizes how current attitudes of people originated, and the purpose these
attitudes serve, with the intention of attempting to change them.
Ray Corsini:
The Dictionary of Psychology Ó2002
Three Components of Attitude
Cognitive -
involves beliefs about what is and is not true with respect to
some class of things
Emotive -
involves feelings or emotions about some class of things
Behavioral -
involves tendencies to do certain things with respect to
some class of things
Some
interesting and relevant quotes:
Show me a good loser, and I'll show
you a loser.
Winning isn't everything, it's the only thing.
If winning weren't important, they wouldn't keep score.
- Vince Lombardi
Ability is what you're capable of
doing.
Motivation determines what you do.
Attitude determines how well you do
it.
- Lou Holtz
Show me someone who has done something worthwhile, and I'll show you someone
who has overcome adversity
- Lou Holtz
Smooth seas do not make skillful sailors.- African Proverb
If you’re
interested, see also my paper “Every Culture’s Subculture: The
Underachievers“ at http://www.dolezalek.com/chris/silenced.htm
Drafters of
the
What if
there is something 'wrong' with the baby? Cornelia Wilson finds that attitudes
within society are far more limiting to disabled children (and their parents)
than the medical conditions themselves.
Can we not
apply some of the things learned/observed in terms of students with language
and prejudice (race, religion, culture, gender, body style,
…) issues?
Some terms
relevant to this discussion:
Cooperative
Learning, Collaboration, Community Building, Character Education, Perspectives,
Perceptions, 5 R’s, Service Learning, Affective Filter, …
Steven Krashen’s fifth hypothesis in terms of second language
acquisition: the Affective Filter hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play
a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These
variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety.
Krashen claims that learners with high motivation,
self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better
equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low
self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective
filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being
used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes
language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not
sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
http://wwwed.sturt.flinders.edu.au/edweb/programs/eddprops/larkey.htm:
The research
into the question whether inclusion improves social skills has created further
debate. It has been found that simply including children with disabilities
in the general classroom does not automatically lead to better socialization
outcomes for children with disabilities (Cooper et al., 1999,
Wagner, 1999). When examining the attitudes of other students towards
students with disabilities Kyle and Davies (1991) found a concern
expressed by many students without disabilities was “knowing one should be
sociable but not knowing quite how to react” (Kyle et al p.106). Similarly, Whitaker et al. (1994)
found most students commented on their lack of knowledge of learning disability
and two thirds of the students expressed uncertainty as to how to respond to
students with disabilities. Cooper et al.(1999) found that a special
social skills program for both the disabled and mainstream students was
required to foster socialisation.
·
Friendships:
In Special Education model schools students were aware of peers with
disabilities but social and academic separation was apparent. Secondary
students knew few peers with disabilities by name and friendships were rare.
Elementary students did know the names of some peers with disabilities when
integration programs were in place. Friendships were uncommon.
Students in inclusively structured schools knew the names of peers with
disabilities. Academic and social relationships were the order of the day. Many
elementary and secondary students indicated that they were friends of peers
with disabilities. Some students were known to pretend friendship in order to
gain some type of advantage.
·
Teasing
and Insulting Behaviour:
Teasing and insulting of peers with disabilities was a dynamic in Special
Education model schools, particularly at the secondary level. Name calling,
planned public embarrassment, and negative physical reactions to the presence
of peers with disabilities were reported. Teasing and insulting behaviour was attributed to a focus on differences,
opportunities to set up situations humourous to
non-disabled peers, and active desire to avoid association with peers with
disabilities.
Teasing and insulting behaviour occurred in Inclusive
model schools, but was described as rare. Those who tormented peers with
disabilities were considered to lack maturity.
·
Advocacy
for Peers with Disabilities:
Many students in Special Education model secondary schools reported that they
actively intervened when peers with disabilities were tormented, though some
chose not to be involved. Elementary students reported few instances where advocacy
was required.
As few instances of tormenting behaviour were
reported in Inclusive model schools, responses tended to be
hypothetical, "if I were to see something", scenarios. Within that
context secondary students indicated that they would intervene personally or
report an incident to authorities. A number of interviewees suggested that
peers acting inappropriately might be helped by an educational program which
discussed disability and its effects. A subset volunteered the view that some
teachers might benefit from such a program as well.
·
Support
for Exclusion or Inclusion:
Students in Special Education model schools supported full time or part time
segregation for peers with disabilities. Students with disabilities were
believed to need help which could be provided only in segregated environments.
Few questioned the Special Education model. None suggested an Inclusive model.
Inclusive model students rarely mentioned placement other than in the
regular classroom for peers with disabilities. It was accepted that peers with
disabilities could succeed at their own level and that it was a peer
responsibility to support them in their work. The few mentions of Special
Education placement indicated that such placement was inappropriate and not
needed.
It is hoped that this study soon will be reported in the literature in fuller
form. The recentness of completion has not permitted the time needed to draft a
full report. Findings presented above are prelimary
in nature.
Gary Bunch,
My name is Janell. I am 15 and this is about having an aid in school. I have had medical problems since I was born. It is important that I stay well and don't get real sick. I have oxygen, special equipment, and doctors to help keep me well. I think it is my responsibility to do what I can to stay healthy.
Most of all, aids shouldn't follow us around and make us look more different. They should keep busy nearby. Some schools say they can't do this, but my aid, Ms Carper was real good at acting like she was there for all of us.
I don't like it when other people keep starring at me and asking if I feel OK. I will tell them when I am not feeling well. Teachers and aids should try to not worry too much about kids with special needs. If they are worried about something bad happening at school, they need to remember to stay calm and learn to trust the student and their own observations. After a while, they will know if we are having trouble just by looking at us.
Also, they should be careful about telling other students about our problems. Just because they are our aid, they should not be in charge of everything we do and say. We are still kids like everyone else in school. I would like the aid to let me explain it myself when someone asks. I should be asked first before anyone tells anyone else anything. I would rather tell other students what is wrong with me in private and only when they ask. Even when I was little and didn't know much, I wanted to be the one who decided what we told others. You might think some kids do not understand, but they do. They know what looks from other kids mean.
Parents have to be real careful about sending their kids to school with special health care problems. They should talk to the teachers first and find ones that are understanding and can handle emergencies without getting all upset. It is OK if everyone cannot do that, as long as there is someone around who can.
Parents and the teachers should make sure there is a safe and private place for kids to go when they need help. They need to listen to us and make sure that they are doing what is best for everyone, not just what they think will be best.
NEVER, EVER PUT A KID IN A ROOM WHERE THE TEACHER ISN'T COMFORTABLE WITH THEM. That is bad for everyone.
Aids can help kids see what they can do with a little help. They should not be there to do everything for them. We are the ones in school, not the aid!
I really like my school. Sometimes I miss a lot of days from getting sick or for appointments, but I still get treated just like everyone else. I play basketball and the teachers and coaches are great. My friends make sure I keep up on what is happening by copying homework for me, lending me their notes, staying in to help me get caught up, and making sure I know the important stuff like who broke up with their boyfriend and who s fighting with each other. I am happy and have a good life and no one feels sorry for me, especially me.
Janell Wells
APA Style Guide
Removing Bias in Language
Guidelines for
Non-Handicapping Language in APA Journals
Committee on Disability
Issues in Psychology
The use of certain words or
phrases can express gender, ethnic, or racial bias, either intentionally or
unintentionally. The same is true of language referring to persons with
disabilities, which in many instances can express negative and disparaging
attitudes.
It is recommended that
the word disability be used to refer to an attribute of a person, and handicap
to the source of limitations. Sometimes a disability itself may handicap
a person, as when a person with one arm is handicapped in playing the violin.
However, when the limitation is environmental, as in the case of attitudinal,
legal, and architectural barriers, the disability is not
handicapping—the environmental factor is. This distinction is important because
the environment is frequently overlooked as a major source of limitation, even
when it is far more limiting than the disability. Thus, prejudice handicaps
people by denying access to opportunities; inaccessible buildings surrounded by
steps and curbs handicap people who require the use of a ramp.
Use of the terms non-disabled
or persons without disabilities is preferable to the term normal
when comparing persons with disabilities to others. Usage of normal
makes the unconscious comparison of abnormal, thus stigmatizing those
individuals with differences. For example, state "a non-disabled control
group," not "a normal control group."
The guiding principle for
non handicapping language is to maintain the integrity of individuals as whole
human beings by avoiding language that (a) implies that a person as a whole is
disabled (e.g., disabled person), (b) equates persons with their condition
(e.g., epileptics), (c) has superfluous, negative overtones (e.g., stroke
victim), or (d) is regarded as a slur (e.g., cripple).
For decades, persons with
disabilities have been identified by their disability first, and as persons,
second. Often, persons with disabilities are viewed as being afflicted with, or
being victims of, a disability. In focusing on the disability, an individual's
strengths, abilities, skills, and resources are often ignored. In many
instances, persons with disabilities are viewed neither as having the capacity
or right to express their goals and preferences nor as being resourceful and
contributing members of society. Many words and phrases commonly used when discussing
persons with disabilities reflect these biases.
Listed below are examples
of negative, stereotypical, and sometimes offensive words and expressions. Also
listed are examples of preferred language, which describes without implying a
negative judgement. Even though their connotations
may change with time, the rationale behind use of these expressions provides a
basis for language reevaluation. The specific recommendations are not intended
to be all-inclusive. The basic principles, however, apply in the formulation of
all nonhandicapping language.
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1. Put people first, not their disability |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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2. Do not label people by their disability |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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3. Do not label persons with disabilities as patients or
invalids |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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5. Use emotionally neutral expressions |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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6. Emphasize abilities, not limitations |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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7. Avoid offensive expression |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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8. Focus on the right and capacity of people with disabilities
to express their own goals and preferences and to exercise control over their
own services and supports |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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9. Seeing people with disabilities as a resource and as contributing
community members, not as a burden or problem. |
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PROBLEMATIC |
PREFERRED |
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[April
1992] |
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PEER
INTERACTIONS
Acceptance,
Belonging,
Community
Adapted from “Creating Continuity for Children”, pg. 109,
Bridging Services for Children with Special Needs and Their Families, Rosenkoetter, Hains and Fowler, Authors/Ed.,
Paul H. Brooks Publishing,
PEER
INTERACTIONS CHECKLIST
PEER
INTERACTIONS
CHECKLIST
EXPLANATION
Ask yourself the following question:
If you had one minute left to live and you knew it, what would you be thinking
about? Would you be thinking about your dirty house, your
unpaid bills, your lawn in need of mowing, or family members or other
significant persons in your life. The majority of people would be thinking of
family members or other significant persons in their lives.
Ask yourself another question: For
those of you who are high school graduates, think back
on your most memorable high school experience. Did it involve an assignment, a
test, a lecture, a textbook, a classroom experience,
an experience outside of the classroom and/or an experience with another person
probably another student? The majority of people would say an experience with
another person although the other choices may come into play.
Based upon you answers to the above
two questions, would you agree or disagree with the statement that the most
important thing in our lives are our relationships with other people? Most
people would agree. However, schools have a history of not addressing the area
of interpersonal relationships in their curriculums. The following explanations
may help you in changing this as learning how to interact with others is a
lifelong skill.
1)
Discuss the need for all people have for relationships and
the pros and cons of talking with peers about the disability. It is imperative
to discuss with the student team the pros and cons of talking to peers about
the disability as there are different philosophies concerning this. One point
of view is that this discussion about the disability will only serve to make
the student more “different”.
The other point of view is that this discussion about the disability will help
the peers to understand and lessen their fears as we are afraid of what we do
not understand. Therefore the student team needs to decide which philosophy
they will adhere to.
2)
Get permission from the student and parents. Due to the laws that protect the
confidentiality of the students and parents, you must obtain written permission
from the parents in order to talk with peers (and staff that are not directly
involved with the student) about the student’s disability. It is also
recommended that you receive verbal permission from the students (written if
they are 18 or older) as it is their life you are talking about. Another decision
that needs to be made is whether or not the student will be present when
his/her disability is discussed. In most cases they should be as again it is
their life you are talking about.
3)
Provide information about the student to his/her peers (see
#2). It is a good idea to ask the parents of the identified student if they
would like to talk to the class. See included example of a letter from parents.
The information given to peers needs to be presented on people first language
and needs to stress how the identified student is similar to his peers. The
information needs to include the student’s dreams, gifts, interests, fears, and
needs. In order to alleviate the fear of the unknown, it is important to talk
about the student’s disability and to show how any adaptations are done and why
they are done. The issue of “fairness” may also need to be addressed. The team
should decide whether the information shared with peers should also be shared
with school staff and parents of the peers.
4)
Consider doing an ability awareness workshop for peers
and/or school staff. An ability awareness workshop for peers and/or staff will
be beneficial in helping people to realize and accept differences in all
people. The Kansas State Board of Education has a program that is available
that you may use tailored to your own needs. There are also many exceptional
published programs for all age levels available which are included in the
reference list.
5)
Determine how to in-service staff and provide follow-up technical
assistance on strategies that promote peer interactions. There are several
strategies that can facilitate the building of relationships at school. These
strategies include: facilitating peer interactions, peer tutoring, cooperative
learning, peer buddies, peer support groups (circle of friends) etc. These
strategies will be explained below:
Facilitating
peer interactions: Facilitating peer interactions is defined as providing the opportunities
for relationships to develop. The key word in the previous sentence is opportunities
as no one person can force relationships without having negative effects.
For a few people facilitating relationships will come naturally however, the
majority of the adults will need to have the philosophy and the process explained
to them as this is often not consider to be a part of schools as it is not
“academic”. See the included “Guidelines for Facilitating Peer Interactions”.
In addition, Beth Schaffner and Barbara Buswell have written an excellent brief manual that would
be an excellent resource entitled Connecting Students: A Guide to Thoughtful
Friendship Facilitation for Educators & Families.
Peer
Support Groups:
Peer support groups are sometimes referred to as “circle of friends”. The
editor prefers the term “peer support groups” as this term does not imply that
we are trying to create friendships. It is recommended that the peer support
group be volunteers who meet on a regular basis with an adult
facilitator. These meetings may take place before school, after school, over
lunch, during a flex time, etc. It is imperative that no one person be put in a
situation that they are extremely uncomfortable with. The peer support group
needs to set their own goals but, usually are along the lines of peer
suggestions on how the student with disabilities be
more a part of the class and school. The student with the disability should
attend all meetings and be comfortable with the situation. The adult
facilitator will need to make sure the group stays on the right track with their
goals. Some possible topics for discussion are included. The group should also
set rules.
Peer
Tutoring: Peer
tutoring is defined as having peers assist each other with the learning
process. Peer tutoring involves students of similar age or the same grade level
assisting each other. Peer tutoring
benefits both the tutor as well as the tutee as research has proven that
children learn best by teaching each other (citation). For some children the
process of peer tutoring will come naturally however, the majority of peers
will need training in how to be effective tutors and tutees and what the
guidelines are. Peer tutoring allows students to establish lifelong skills in
working with others.
Cross-age
tutoring: Cross-age
tutoring is defined as students of different ages or grade levels assisting
each other in the learning process. An example of this is a 5th grade class
helping a 2nd grade class with making a book with one 5th grader
working with one 2nd grader. As with peer tutoring, the guidelines
will need to be set and training will need to occur. The biggest obstacle is
usually the tutor giving the tutee too much help Included is an example of
cross-age tutoring called the “Student Aid Program” developed for Holcomb
Middle School several years ago which included the student aids receiving
grades for their tutoring services.
Peer
Buddies: Peer buddies is defined as students who assist their fellow
students in nonacademic areas. An example would be a student assisting a peer
with a physical disability through the lunch line. As with peer tutoring,
guidelines need to be established and training needs to occur. As with peer
tutoring, this strategy assists both parties in learning lifelong skills.
Cooperative
Learning:
Cooperative learning is defined as using the collaborative teaming process (see
the section on Collaborative
Teams ) with students in an academic
setting. There are many versions of cooperative learning that have been
published. HPEC and the school districts they work with mainly use “Kagan’s Cooperative Learning” model. An advantage of the Kagan model is that it does not support the concept of
“group grades” which is one of the big controversies surrounding cooperative
learning.
Conclusion: life long skills; No. 1 reason people lose their job is
interpersonal skills.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Descriptions of Some
Commonly Used Techniques
SIMPLE STRUCTURES
THINK-PAIR-SHARE is a “multi-mode” discussion strategy that incorporates wait time and
aspects of cooperative learning. Students and teachers) learn to LISTEN while a
question is being posed, THINK (without raising hands) of a response, PAIR with
a neighbor, discuss their responses, and SHARE their responses with the whole
class. Time limits and transition cues help discussions move smoothly. Students
are able to rehearse responses mentally and verbally, and all students have an
opportunity to talk. Both students and teachers have opportunity to think. (Lyman)
T.A.P.P.S.(Talking Aloud
Paired Problem-Solving) requires a
pair. One student responds to the problem by continually talking and
verbalizing each step. The other student (listener) does not offer help and
speaks only to remind the problem-solver to continue verbalizing or to ask a
question if a step is not fully explained. The listener does not offer help in
solving nor does he/she indicate agreement or disagreement with an answer. The
listener reports what the problem-solver stated. (Ventures in Education)
STUDY BUDDIES work in groups of two, having each member question the other about
material being studied. Tell them they will receive bonus points if they score
above a certain percentage. (Lundgren)
PARTNER READING has students reading a story or passage silently, then
reading it orally with their partner. During oral reading, students take turns
reading the story aloud, alternating readers after each paragraph. While their
partner is reading, the listener follows along, correcting any errors the
reader may make.
(Stevens, et al)
CHECKMATES has teams
compare homework answers or class worksheet answers. They should discuss
answers, which differ and come to agreement on the best answers and change
them. Each pair submits one paper with both names. (Lundgren)
THREE STEP INTERVIEW is similar to Think-Pair-Share-Square, but more
structured. Students form pairs. Using interview/listening techniques that have
been modeled, one student interviews another about an announced topic. When
time is up, students switch roles as interviewer and interviewee. Pairs then
join to form groups of four. Students take turns introducing their pair
partners and sharing what the pair partner had to say. The three step interview
is used as a team builder, and also for opinion questions, predicting,
evaluation, sharing book reports, etc. (Kagan)
ROUNDTABLE is
used for brainstorming, reviewing or practicing while also serving as a
team-builder. Roundtable consists of two forms, sequential and simultaneous.
Sequential form: Students sit in teams of three or more, with one piece of
paper and a pencil. The teacher asks a question which has multiple answers.
Students take turns writing one answer on the paper, then passing the paper and
pencil clockwise to the next person. When time is called, teams with the most
correct answers are recognized. Teams reflect on strategies and consider ways
they could improve. Simultaneous form: Each students starts a piece of paper,
writes one answer and passes it, so several
papers are moving at once. (Kagan)
CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE is like roundtable. This technique is useful for
brainstorming, reviewing or practicing while also serving as a team-builder.
Students sit in teams with one recorder. The teachers ask a single question
with multiple answers. Students take turns giving answers, which the recorder
writes down. When time is called, teams take turns reporting answers, which the
teacher records. Teams may challenge other teams. The team that does not run
out of answers wins. (Dunn and Dunn)
NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER is useful for quickly reviewing objective material in
a fun way. Students in each team are numbered (each team might have 4 students,
numbered 1-4). Students coach each other on the material to be mastered.
Teachers pose a question and call a number. Only students with that number are
allowed to answer and earn points for their team. This builds both individual
accountability and positive interdependence. The activity may be done with only
one student in the class responding (sequential form) or with all the number
3’s for instance, responding by hand signals (simultaneous form). (Kagan)
PAIRS CHECK is
a way to structure pair work on mastery-oriented worksheets. Students work in
teams of four with two sets of partners. The worksheet is set up with problems
presented in pairs. The first person in each partnership does the first problem
with the pair partner serving as coach, and offering exaggerated praise. After
the first problem is done, partners change roles. After each pair of problems,
teams of four check each work and, if they agree, give
a team cheer or handshake. In this way students stay on task, working together
towards mastery. (Kagan)
SEND A PROBLEM permits each student on a team to write a review problem on a flash card
(index card). Teams reach consensus on answers and write them on the backs of
the card. Each group’s stack of questions is passed to another group, which
attempts to answer them and see if they agree with the sending group. If not,
they write their own answer as an alternative. Stacks of cards can be sent to a
third and fourth group. Stacks of cards are finally returned to senders, who
may discuss the alternative answers. (Kagan)
STUDENT TEAM
LEARNING TECHNIQUES
The Student Team Learning Models have been developed
to make use of carefully structured heterogeneous teams. Reward systems allow
students to earn points for their teams based on how well they do compared to
past performance.
STAD (Student
Teams-Achievement Divisions) lets teachers present
material in the same way they always have, and quizzes are used to assess
individual performance. STAD is used to replace drill and practice on objective
material with team tutoring and encouragement. During team practice time,
students work on exercises and worksheets that help them to prepare for the
quiz. Students earn team points based on how well they scored on the quiz
compared to past performance. (Slavin)
TGT (Teams-Games-Tournaments)
has team practice like STAD. Unlike STAD, in TGT quizzes are replaced by tournaments.
Students compete at tournament tables against students from other teams who are
equal to them in terms of past performance. Students earn team points based on
how well they do at their tournament tables. The competition is kept fair by a
bumping system.
JIGSAW II, unlike STAD and TGT, has students responsible for teaching each other the material. A unit of work, often a reading, is divided into 4 expert areas, and each student is assigned one area. Experts from different teams meet together at tables and discuss their expert areas. Students then return to their teams and take turns teaching. A quiz is given. Jigsawing